The Prophets are divided into two sections:
Former Prophets: The historical books that recount the story of the Israelites from their entry into the land of Canaan (Joshua), their settlement into tribes and conflicts with the Canaanites and Philistines (Judges), the establishment of the United Monarchy under Saul and David (1-2 Samuel) and Solomon (1 Kings), the Divided Kingdoms of Israel and Judah (1 Kings), and the fall of the Divided Kingdoms to Assyria and Babylonia (2 Kings)
Latter Prophets: The collections of prophecies attributed to prophets of ancient Israel and Judah, including the three Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) and the Book of Twelve (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi)
Note: Most Bibles that contain the Jewish and Christian Scriptures will include Daniel with the Major Prophets: this is a later, Christian ordering of the Bible. In the ordering of the TANAK, Daniel is part of the Writings.
FORMER PROPHETS
1 Samuel 1-12: From Priest to Prophet, from Judge to King
Meanwhile.... The book of Joshua picks up where the Torah ended, with Joshua (Moses' successor) leading the Israelites into the Land of Canaan; they fight several battles against the native Canaanites, and establish themselves all throughout the Land as a group of loosely federated tribes (the 12 Tribes of Israel, each tribe descended from one of Jacob's son). The book of Judges continues the story of the 12 Tribes of Israel in the Land of Canaan, in a series of confrontations with both the native Canaanites and a new group of military invaders, the Philistines. Although still loosely federated, the 12 Tribes come together under various Judges (usually military and religious leaders) for the specific purpose of defending themselves, usually against the Philistines. This situation of loose confederation, with occasional unity under an ad hoc leader, continues for some time.
These first chapters of 1 Sam are the story of Samuel, who held many leadership roles: he was the last "judge," providing Israel with leadership against the foreign ruling powers, the Philistines, and warning the Israelites against worshipping false gods (which is what the heroes of Judges did); priest, trained at the shrine of Shiloh; and prophet, receiving direct instruction and inspiration from the LORD. His miraculous birth and call to service are narrated, and his leadership of the people of Israel. After his sons prove untrustworthy as judges, the Israelites call for a king (an entirely new leadership position), and Saul is chosen by the LORD and by lottery. Saul proves effective as a warrior and leader, and Samuel "retires."
Points of interest
• The barrenness of Samuel's mother Hannah evokes the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, and Rachel) of the ancestral narratives of Genesis and would later be invoked in the story of John the Baptist (in the Gospel of Luke)
• The Philistines were a non-Semitic people (so they are referred to throughout these books as "uncircumcised") who came from the central Mediterranean (perhaps Greece); it is from their name that the Romans later devised the name "Palestine" for the region
• Anointing with oil was a traditional way of consecrating a leader in the ancient near east (religious or political leaders)
Questions to consider
• What is the significance of the focus on Hannah in the first chapters of 1 Samuel, especially her prayers? What kind of role model might she provide for female spirituality?
• Consider the reiteration of Israelite history and covenant in 1 Samuel 12:6-18: how is it different from earlier covenant formulations? What are the obligations on both sides here?
1 Samuel 16-17: A New King; David and Goliath
King Saul angers the LORD, who removes his "spirit" from him, and commands Samuel to anoint young David, son of Jesse, in secret (although officially anointed here, David's reign as King of all Israel doesn't really begin until 2 Sam 2-5). Saul, plagued by an "evil spirit," hires David to play the lyre (harp). When a Philistine giant (Goliath) challenges Saul's army, young David faces him with a slingshot; he manages to knock him out, and decapitates him, and the Israelites rout the Philistines.
Points of interest
• There seem to be several strands of narrative woven together here, as David's relation to Saul changes throughout 1 Sam 17 (he knows him, he doesn't know him, he hires him, he befriends him)
• Goliath is said to be "six cubits and a span"--a "cubit" is about 18", a span about half that--so Goliath is about ten feet tall
• "Davey and Goliath" was the name of a popular claymation cartoon produced by the Lutheran Church in the 1950s and 1960s with moral messages for young Christians
Questions to consider
• How does the interweaving of individual stories (Saul's madness, David's bravery) help structure the overarching story of politics and religion (Philistine armies, anointed kings)?
• What is the point of all the emphasis on David's youth and stature? What is David's character like in the Goliath narrative--proud, brave, and spirited, or shrewd, calculating, and ambitious? (Pay attention to his interaction with his brother here.)
• There are a lot of moralizing elements in these chapters that are often detached from their historical, narrative context: looking beyond surfaces to the "king inside," Saul's madness and the power of David's music, the "underdog" narrative of David and Goliath--how effectively can such morals be taken out of their context? Could you tell the story, for instance, of the "mad king and his harp player" without mentioning ancient Israel? Would it have the same effect, or would it be transformed?
2 Samuel 5-7: A New Capital; the Davidic Covenant
Meanwhile.... The end of 1 Samuel recounts the slow decline of Saul and the rise to power of his warrior and son-in-law David. Saul tried several times to kill David, but David consistently spared Saul's life. Saul's descent into insecurity and madness grew worse at the death of Samuel. Saul and several of his sons died in a battle with the Philistines, including his son Jonathan, with whom David was very close. The beginning of 2 Samuel recounts the struggle for succession between Saul's general Abner, Saul's son Ishbaal, and David: David eventually triumphs.
After successfully waging war against Saul's remaining son and Saul's generals, David (who was earlier been crowned king of the independent tribe of Judah) is confirmed as King of all Israel. David seizes Jerusalem from the Jebusites, build a palace there (with the help of the King of Tyre), and has the Ark of the Covenant brought to the city. David wants to build a permanent Temple to the LORD in Jerusalem, but the prophet Nathan tells him the LORD does not want him to. Nathan also delivers the "Davidic covenant": the royal line of David is integrated into the covenant between Israel and the LORD forever.
Point of interest
• David's first wife (see 1 Sam 18) was Saul's daughter Michal, who reappears (for the last time) in this section; in addition to adding personal drama, this narrative detail makes David's succession politically as well as religiously plausible
Questions to consider
• What kind of connections are established between politics and religion in the "Davidic covenant" of 2 Sam 7? How would this selection read differently before or after the Babylonian exile? In antiquity, or the present day?
• Why doesn't God want a Temple?
2 Samuel 11-12: David and Bathsheba
David sees Bathsheba, wife of one his generals (Uriah), bathing; he summons her to the palace, they have sex, and she becomes pregnant. When David fails to trick Uriah into sleeping with his own wife (in order to cover up David's paternity), David gives military orders that ensures Uriah will be killed in battle. David marries Bathsheba; his court prophet, Nathan, reveals God's anger at David's betrayal and condemns David and Bathsheba's child to death. The child dies; David and Bathsheba have another son, Solomon, whom the LORD loves. David resumes his successful military campaigns against Israel's enemies.
Points of interest
• Nathan delivers God's message to David first in the form of a parable (a fable that masks a deeper meaning); the parable form would be central in the ministry of Jesus
• Uriah's refusal to sleep with his wife, Bathsheba, while his soldiers were still on the battlefield reflects an ancient custom of sexual abstinence among soldiers during war time
• The books of Samuel and Kings were considered so full of sex, violence, and other immoral behavior that, when ancient Christians translated the Bible in order to convert "barbarian" tribes in northern Europe, they deliberately left these books out
Questions to consider
• Was this sudden and fairly frank narrative of adultery, violence, revenge, and divine anger surprising to find in the Bible? Who are the "good guys" of this story? Who are the "bad guys"? Would your answer change if this story were excerpted, and you hadn't read the story of David's anointing, David and Goliath, or his covenant with God? If the main character was someone besides King David?
• What do you make of Bathsheba? How do we interpret her relationship with David before, during, and after the death of Uriah? Is there a feminist way to read this story?
• God punishes David by killing his son; David refuses to mourn for his dead child because nothing will bring him back from the dead: What is the moral or religious message of this part of the story?
1 Kings 6-8: Solomon Builds the First Temple
Meanwhile... David's reign ended in family intrigue and betrayal; eventually, with the help of the court prophet Nathan, Bathsheba secured the throne for her son Solomon. Solomon prayed for and received wisdom from God and began to reign.
Solomon builds a Temple to the LORD in Jerusalem; the LORD incorporates this Temple into the Davidic covenant. Solomon builds a palace for himself, and brings in foreign artisans to create the interior decorations of the Temple. Solomon consecrates the Temple to the LORD with prayers and a festival.
Points of interest
• Solomon's palace is roughly twice the size of the Temple in Jerusalem, and took about twice as long to build
• The ark is transformed into a throne for God under the wings of "cherubim" (angels) carved in wood and covered with gold
• Like most ancient Temples, Solomon's "great" Temple was just two big rooms: an outer courtyard (where sacrifices took place) and in inner chamber (with God's throne)
• This Temple (known later as the First Temple) was destroyed around 586 B.C.E. by invading Babylonians
Question to consider
• This final version of 1 Kings was probably circulated long after the destruction of the First Temple: why would readers want so much detail (how much gold was used, the measurement of every room and pot and pan, and so forth) about a place that no longer existed, and why include long speeches from Solomon about God's covenant protection if the reader knows that protection later failed?
1 Kings 16-22: The Sins of Israel: Elijah the prophet and Ahab the king
Meanwhile.... After Solomon's death, the northern Kingdom of Israel seceded from the southern kingdom of Judah (where Jerusalem and the Temple were). Jereboam, the first King of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, built two shrines to the LORD at Dan and Bethel, and placed statues of golden calves there: this rejection of the centralized Temple in Jerusalem was considered the "sin of Jereboam." Worse than the "sin of Jereboam" was the worship of foreign gods--Baal, the male god, and Asherah, the female god.
These chapters describe early kings of the northern Kingdom of Israel: the foundation of a capital city in Samaria, and the long reign of Ahab. Ahab married a foreign princess, Jezebel, who encouraged the worship of Baal to Samaria. Elijah the prophet of the LORD speaks out against Ahab and Jezebel: he calls down a famine and drought in the LORD's name as punishment. Elijah performs miracles, and challenges the prophets of Baal and Asherah to a "God-off" on Mount Carmel. When the LORD wins the contest, Elijah slaughters more than 900 prophets. Elijah takes Elisha as his apprentice prophet. Despite Ahab's successes as a ruler, due to his corruption and idolatry, the prophets Elijah and Micaiah predict his downfall. Ahab dies in battle.
Points of interest
• The relationship of kings and prophets is well established in this narrative: kings regularly consult prophets before battles and decisions of state; prophets also critique and chastise kings
• "Baal" was a generic name for near eastern deities, meaning "master," usually followed by a place name (as many Catholic churches are dedicated to "Our Lady of ..."); in the Bible it is used as a proper name
• Asherah was an ancient goddess known as the "Queen of Heaven"; inscriptions from the eighth century (the period of Ahab and Elijah) actually suggest some worshipped her as the consort of the LORD
• Samaria, the capital of the Kingdom of Israel, is the heart of the present-day West Bank territories of Palestine
Questions to consider
• Ahab is called "more evil than all who came before him": what is the basis for this judgment? What is the evil he did?
• Elijah and his followers bring down droughts, kill enemy prophets, and threaten the King of Israel: are there moral problems with the method of divine retribution and punishment in these chapters?
2 Kings 2-11: The Sins of Israel and Judah: Elisha and the Good and Bad Kings
Elijah is taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire, and Elisha continues his work speaking for the LORD and performing miracles, including healing the Syrian King Naaman of leprosy, alone and with his company of prophets. Elisha incites rebellion in the neighboring kingdom of Aram to protect Israel. Elisha anoints Jehu King of Israel, leading to rebellion and the massacre of Ahab's family; Jehu also massacres all of the worshipers of Baal (but still condones the "sin of Jereboam"). In the southern Kingdom of Judah, the priest Jehoiada restores the worship of the LORD in the Jerusalem Temple and directs the assassination of the Dowager Queen Athaliah (Ahab's daughter). The Davidic covenant is restored.
Points of interest
• The ascent of Elijah in a "chariot of fire" has always been a major component of biblically inspired mysticism; since Elijah did not "die," tradition also thought he remained in the service of God and the messiah
• The tradition of Jezebel as a sexually promiscuous and immoral woman derives from a conflation of her idolatry with general moral laxity, and the single verse (2 Kgs 9:30) about her "painting her eyes" to meet Jehu
Questions to consider
• The story of the people of Israel and their God has become increasingly a story of military and political intrigue: is this still a religious story in your opinion? How are politics and religion brought together in these chapters?
• The amount of violence in these chapters only increases: are there moral lessons to be drawn from the slaughters of God's "anointed" king?
• Elisha performs many miracles, including the healing of a foreign king: why include a story about God's assistance to a foreigner in the story of God and Israel?
2 Kings 24-25: Destruction and Exile
After suffering through bad and worse kings, the Northern Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrian Empire of Mesopotamia (see 2 Kgs 17). The Southern Kingdom of Judah repelled the Assyrians, and was ruled by religiously pious kings (Hezekiah) and kings who worshipped Baal (Manasseh). After strict religious reforms undertaken by King Josiah (with the assistance of the wise-woman Huldah), God punishes Judah for its sins by allowing it to be annexed (for almost thirty years), besieged, captured, and destroyed by the new superpower to the East, the Babylonians. The First Temple is destroyed, and the remaining leaders are taken into Exile in Babylon (and many other inhabitants flee to Egypt) and a puppet administration installed. After many years in Exile, the King of Judah is released from his prison.
Points of interest
• The inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom disappear from biblical history after the fall of Israel: legend called them the "10 Lost Tribes" and they appear in the mythological origins of many later national groups (such as the British or American Indians)
• Josiah's reforms include the "discovery" of a book of Law in the Temple treasury which, based on the reforms, might be the book of Deuteronomy (or an early version of it)
• The Kingdom of Judah was drastically reduced by Babylonian conquerors to a small territory around Jerusalem, later known as Yehud (under the Persians) and Judaea under the Greeks and Romans
Questions to consider
• What is the reason given by 2 Kings for the destruction of Judah (as in 2 Kgs 24:3-4); how does this fit in with the covenant ideology of the Torah and Prophets?
• What is the effect of giving all of this explicitly military and political detail about the fall of Judah, instead of focusing on more personal details (emotional response, loss of life, appeals to God)?
• What is the tone at the very end of 2 Kings: Hopeful? Depressed? Uncertain?
LATTER PROPHETS
Isaiah 1-4: Oracles for/against Israel and Judah
The book of Isaiah actually appears to be a composite work of different prophets (or prophetic bands): "First Isaiah" before the Babylonian Exile (in the eighth century), "Second Isaiah" during the Exile (sixth century), and "Third Isaiah" after the Exile (later sixth century; see the chapter breakdown of all three Isaiahs in the textbook). All of the authors focus on God's judgment, the covenant, and the majesty and righteousness of God.
This first excerpt comes from the beginning of "First Isaiah," the oldest of the prophets, in the context of the struggles of the Divided Kingdoms of Judah and Israel with various foreign powers (see 2 Kings). Isaiah delivers God's condemnation of Israel (here, the whole people, not just the Kingdom of Israel): their service to the LORD is made meaningless by their personal corruption; they worship idols; God will punish them by unleashing enemies on them, but those who remain after this purging will form a new, holier Jerusalem.
Points of interest
• Isaiah is also a character in 2 Kings 19-20; it is unclear whether his prophecies were known, inspiring the author(s) of Kings to include him as a character, or whether the character in Kings inspired the name of this collection of prophecies
• The prophetic imagery relies heavily on the Torah (Jacob, Sodom, Gomorrah) as well as metaphors of covenant disloyalty: idolatry as adultery, immorality as theft, desolation as punishment
Questions to consider
• Are these chapters from Isaiah hopeful, or angry? Can they be both? Would a poor person of Isaiah's day hear this collection of prophecies differently from a member of the ruling class?
• The prophecy of Isa 2:4 ("swords into plowshares... nation shall not lift up sword against nation...") is justly famous: but in the context of these opening chapters (threatening and angry as well as hopeful and optimistic) does its meaning change?
Isaiah 42-45: The Suffering Servant, the True God, and the Messiah
These four chapters come from so-called Second Isaiah, probably written very near the end of the Babylonian Exile. Three different themes are intertwined: Israel as God's "suffering servant" who has been punished but will soon be redeemed; the uniqueness of God's divinity (monotheism) and the mockery of false idols; and the commission to Cyrus, king of the Persians, as God's "anointed one" (messiah) who will restore Israel as God's servant. In prophecies addressed to Israel ("my servant"), God is by turns consoling and condemning, reminding Israel that they have suffered justly for turning away from God's covenant, but also promising that they will very soon be restored. There are also several prophecies that affirm God as the sole Creator of the universe, who controls all nations and the destiny of all creatures, and makes fun of idols made of wood and other created objects. The "commission to Cyrus" praises him for his righteousness, assigns him the task of freeing Israel from Babylonian captivity, but also affirms that it is God who controls the events of all nations.
Points of interest
• When the earliest Christians read Isaiah 42 (one of the "suffering servant" songs), they applied its prophecies to Jesus, who had suffered in crucifixion and was believed to be a "light to the nations" (Isa 42:6; where "nations" can also mean "gentiles," that is, non-Jews)
• Cyrus (called "The Great") was the first King of Kings of Persia, a new Mesopotamian Empire the displaced the Babylonians in the sixth century and spread as far as Greece before being conquered by Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE
Questions to consider
• How does the prophet convey God's "mood" in these prophecies: is he angry, happy, hopeful, distressed? What reaction would be evoked in readers: hope, fear, concern, delight?
• What exactly is being promised to the exiles: absolute freedom, or bondage under another master (Cyrus)? How is "freedom from captivity" reconciled in these prophecies with "subjection to another Empire"?
• Although God (through the prophet) condemned the worship of "idols," there are few specifics about the worship of God (i.e., no mention of the Temple being restored): what constitutes the relationship with God? What is meant by "righteousness"?
Jeremiah 29-30: The Letter to Babylon and Consolation
Jeremiah is the second of the Major Prophets. Jeremiah's life and prophecies spanned the last decades of the southern Kingdom of Judah before and into the beginning of the Babylonian Exile, perhaps as long as thirty years (circa 610 BCE-570s BCE). His prophecies from God are a combination of stern rebuke with cautious optimism for a new existence in and beyond God's punishment of Exile. When the Babylonians defeated Judah and took the leaders into Exile in Babylon, Jeremiah remained in Judah to prophesy to the devastated inhabitants who were left behind. Eventually, he fled into Egypt (Babylon's enemy) where he disappears from history.
The first chapter seems to date from after the defeat of Judah by Babylon, but before the destruction of the Temple and the city of Jerusalem. The first leaders of Judah have already been led into exile, and Jeremiah writes to those exiles in Babylon with a message of hope: he tells them that the exile will last 70 years, but, in the meantime, they should continue to live their lives (build houses, marry, have children). He also warns these leaders, as well as the priests remaining in Jerusalem, against false prophets. The second chapter probably dates from after the destruction of the Temple (some pieces may even have been added after the return from exile). Jeremiah reminds the exiles that they suffer justly and have earned their exile; nonetheless, God promises that they will be restored to their home... eventually.
Points of Interest
• The book of Jeremiah contains more autobiographical information about the prophet than any other prophetic book, giving us insight into the ways that prophets functioned in society
• The "seventy years" of Babylonian captivity (variously configured by modern interpreters of the prophet as either incorrect or dead-on) were used by the later writer of Daniel (9:20-27) and expanded into an apocalyptic framework ("seventy weeks of years")
• The figure of Jeremiah as a prophet-after-catastrophe was taken up by comic artic Herman Huppenn in the 1970s and 1980s, and further adapted into a science fiction series starring Luke Perry (Beverly Hills 90210), Sean Astin (Lord of the Rings), and Malcolm Jamal Warner (The Cosby Show)
Questions to consider
• Given that the book of Jeremiah was compiled after the return from Exile, and read throughout the history of Jews and Christians, how might his message to "seek the welfare of the city where I have sent you into exile and pray on its behalf" (Jer 29:7) be interpreted as a contemporary statement about "church-state" relations?
• Does the so-called "book of consolation" (Jer 30 and following) seem inconsistent, promising an "incurable wound" in one verse and then turning around to talk about the LORD having "compassion" on Israel?
Ezekiel 16: Israel as an Adulterous Woman
Ezekiel was a priest and a prophet before and during the Babylonian Exile; his behavior was extreme, but he also served as a focus of Jewish unity in Exile. His prophecies are harsh, but also sometimes hopeful. He believes that God has delivered an awesome punishment against Israel because they have deserved it; but he also believes that God can restore even a dead body to life (a metaphor for restoring the shattered covenant). In this chapter, he provides an extended analogy between God and Israel and a gentle master whose orphan wife has betrayed him with countless other men. Although the metaphor of "idolatry as adultery" is found throughout the Prophets, its presentation here is particularly graphic and disturbing.
Points of interest
• Ezekiel gives excellent examples of the performative aspects of ancient prophecy: he acts out his prophecies as well as speaking them
• Ezekiel's visions, particularly that of the Lord's chariot (Ezek 1), have been the source of much Jewish and Christian mystical speculation; the medieval rabbis (Jewish religious leaders) thought this chapter was so mystically powerful that only men over 30 were allowed to read it
Questions to consider
• Sexuality is used throughout the Bible, in both literal and metaphorical terms: does this religious contextualization of sex seem odd or strange in the 21st century? Do you think it was meant to seem odd or strange when the Bible was written?
• What is the impact of the last paragraph, on the restoration of the covenant, after the shocking imagery of the rest of the chapter?
Amos
This is perhaps the oldest prophetic book in the Hebrew Bible. In the eighth century Amos, from Judah, delivered prophecies about personal and communal religious responsibilities to the Northern Kingdom of Israel. In a time of peace and prosperity, Amos chastised Israel for spiritual and moral bankruptcy and promised punishment from God's hand. He delivers oracles (predictions) against foreign nations, and then against Israel itself. Amos contends that personal corruption and immorality cancels out the performance of covenant duties such as worship. He also predicts punishment, and eventual restoration of the covenant of David.
Points of interest
• Although the prophecies in this book are probably the oldest in the Bible, the book has been edited and other material added
• Amos' prophetic style provided inspiration for "social justice" and ethical religious movements, such as the civil rights movement of the 1960s
• The "Minor Prophets" (the twelve prophetic books after Ezekiel in the TANAK) were so short that they could all fit on one scroll in antiquity: thus they were considered one book, "The Book of Twelve"
Questions to consider
• Does the predominance of agricultural imagery (vineyards, gardens, droughts, farmers) tell us anything about the social context for this book? What effect would this imagery have on an urban audience?
• Amos begins by prophesying against "the nations" (i.e., those outside of God's covenant) and then Israel (those who have made a covenant with God): who is the audience for this? Would non-Israelites be persuaded by oracles against Israel? Would Israelites be affected by oracles against outsiders?
Haggai
The collection of prophecies comes from the immediately post-Exile period, during the reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple under the Persians. Haggai warns the local leaders (political and religious) of the importance of restoring Jerusalem as the home of God's Temple and worship. He adds shades of warning to the mood of rejoicing at the end of Exile; he also adds even greater promises of total restoration of Israel. Haggai's prophetic promises blur the distinction between political restoration and cosmic restoration (apocalypticism).
Points of interest
• Haggai is mentioned in the book of Ezra as a post-Exile prophet (along with Zechariah)
• Although it is only two chapters, Haggai is not the shorted of the Twelve Minor Prophets: Obadiah, at 21 verses, is the shorted book of the Hebrew Bible
Questions to consider
• These prophecies were (probably) delivered very soon after the Persians liberated the Judeans from Exile: what kind of attitude (if any) can you discern towards their new Persian overlords? Against non-Jews in general?
• Does Haggai seem opposed to or supportive of the Temple priesthood? In the conversation with the priests (2:11-19), who seems to have greater religious authority?