1 Maccabees 1
One of the historical books of the Deuterocanon/Apocrypha, 1 Maccabees tells the story of the origins of the brief, independent Judean Kingdom rules by the Hasmonean family (this dynasty lasted from 134 BCE - 63 BCE). After a brief description of the conquests of Alexander the Great (in the 330s BCE) and the division of his empire into the three Hellenistic kingdoms, the book quickly moves to the rise of the Seleucid (Greek Syrian) King Antiochus IV (known as Epiphanes, or "[the God] has appeared") in 175 BCE. The remainder of 1 Maccabees details the ways in which Antiochus attempted to forcibly Hellenize Judea, even transforming the Temple in Jerusalem into a pagan sanctuary; as a response, a priestly family took up arms and began a revolution against Antiochus, resulting eventually in the changing of the high priestly family and the establishment of an independent kingdom (here, 1 Maccabees ends). The family that led the revolt were known as the Maccabees (a nickname that means "hammerer": see 1 Macc 2:4) and the Hasmoneans (a family name, the origins of which are uncertain).
The book probably dates to soon after the events it recounts, and is manifestly a piece of propaganda for the new ruling dynasty of Hasmoneans. Scholars believe it was originally composed in Hebrew but--because it was not included in the Jewish TANAK--it only survives in the Greek translation of the Septuagint. It is modeled both on biblical historical books, such as 1-2 Kings and 1-2 Chronicles, as well as on Greek historical writers.
The first chapter moves quickly from the conquests of Alexander (who is spoken of in relatively positive terms) to the reign of Antiochus IV, who is clearly evil. The onslaught of hellenistic adaptation by Jews is not presented as a long-term strategy of Alexander, but rather a combination of Jewish impiety ("some Jews" seek out "alliances with the gentiles") and Antiochus's depravity and ambition. Almost immediately following the slight concessions (Greek names, Greek buildings) comes the full conquest of Jerusalem, attempts by Antiochus to root out and destroy Jewish religion, and the defiling of the Temple with "idols" and false worship.
Points of interest
• The restoration and rededication of the Temple described in 1 Macc 4:36-39 is the origin of the Jewish historical holiday Hanukkah--even though Jews do not consider this to be a canonical book of the TANAK
• There are several different "books of Maccabees" in different deuterocanonical collections, although not all of them deal with the Maccabean uprising against Antiochus: their common theme is the confrontation between Judaism and Hellenism.
• "Removing the marks of circumcision" (see 1 Macc 1:15) is known as epispasm, and is known also from ancient Greek and Roman medical manuals.
Questions to consider
• Why would Alexander be portrayed in such positive terms, while his successors are presented as the source of "many evils"?
• Why would the author(s) of 1 Maccabees link cultural integration of Greek customs ("hellenism") so forcefully with political defeat and religious betrayal? Is there any middle ground here?
• Does the "defeat" of Judea in 1 Macc 1 resonate at all with the various defeats of Israel and Judah in the Former Prophets? Whose "fault" is the loss of Jerusalem? Any reason why God doesn't appear in this first chapter?
Susanna and Bel and the Dragon
These two chapters appeared in alternate versions of the Book of Daniel: Susanna may have appeared before chapter 1 or after chapter 12; Bel and the Dragon likely appeared after chapter 12 (and after Susanna). Susanna is set among self-governing Jewish leaders in Exile in Babylon, and tells a familiar folk-tale of a beautiful woman falsely accused of adultery by powerful men whose advances she has rejected. Daniel appears as the clever young man who proves that Susanna's accusers are liars. The men are executed, Susanna is saved, and Daniel acquires a good reputation. Bel and the Dragon is another story of Daniel cast in a lion's den (or perhaps an alternate version of the story found in Daniel 6). It begins with Daniel being clever and disproving the power of a Babylonian idol (named Bel); Daniel then kills a dragon that the Babylonians worshiped as a god, and is thrown into a lion's den as punishment. God sends an angel to bring the Judean prophet Habakkuk to Daniel to provide food for him, and Daniel survives.
Points of interest
• Both Susanna and Bel and the Dragon seem to have been written in the third or second centuries BCE, perhaps originally in Greek and not Hebrew (there are puns in the story of Susanna that do not translate out of Greek)
• Some Jews in antiquity, and most Christians, accepted these stories as part of the book of Daniel; they were excluded from the TANAK, and later from Protestant Bibles (in which they became Apocrypha)
Questions to consider
• Are the representations of Daniel, the foreign rulers, the foreign courtiers, the Jewish Exiles, or God distinctly different in these chapters than in the Book of Daniel itself? Would adding (or subtracting) these narratives change your view of the book of Daniel?
• What happened to the lions in the lion's den in the last chapter of Bel and the Dragon?
• Is there a lesson about sexuality and politics to be gained from the story of Susanna?
The Letter of Aristeas
This letter, written in Greek, probably dates from the first century BCE and explains the origins of the Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible (the Septuagint). It is written as if by a member of the court of one of the Ptolemies, the Greek kings of Egypt (perhaps the first or second Ptolemy, in the fourth century BCE). The letter recounts the desire of the Egyptian king to include all worldly knowledge in his great library at Alexandria, including the holy wisdom of the Jews. So he arranges for Aristeas to gather 72 scholars (six from each tribe of Israel) to come to Alexandria to translate the Law of the Jews. After a series of negotiations, in which thousands of Jewish prisoners of war are released, the scholars come and, after 72 days, produce their translation. It is acclaimed by experts in the law and the king of Egypt. The letter ends with a warning about attempting to transfer the wisdom of the Jewish Scriptures into common Greek genres ("histories" or "poems").
Points of interest
• Although the Letter of Aristeas seems to be referring only to the translation of the Torah, later versions of this story assumed that the entire Septuagint was produced in 72 days by these 72 scholars
• An additional point was added to the story later: that all 72 scholars, isolated for 72 days from the world and each other, emerged at the end of their time with identical translations
• The "Septuagint" was probably not a single translation effort, but rather a series of translations executed over several centuries (although probably mainly in Alexandria, as the story relates)
• "Septuagint" means "70," although the crucial number in the text is "72" ("70" is shorthand)
Questions to Consider
• What are the dangers of translation, especially as hinted at in the end of the excerpt?
• How is the linguistic translation of the TANAK related to the cultural negotiations of Jews and other societies in this letter? How are Jews supposedly viewed by the powerful empires that rule them? Why might Jews want to tell themselves a story like this?
• Who is the translation made for: Jews or non-Jews? Who do you think probably made more use of this translation?
The War Scroll (Dead Sea Scroll)
The so-called "Dead Sea Scrolls" were discovered in 1947 in a series of caves in deserts outside of Jerusalem (a site called Qumran). They range from small, thumbnail-size fragments to large portions of scrolls, and are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. They seem to come from the library of a community that lived on the shores of the Dead Sea in the last centuries BCE and the first century CE. Some scholars think these were the Essenes (who are mentioned in ancient Jewish and Roman sources); others think that they were a different religious community that had separated themselves from the main Temple worship in Jerusalem to await the apocalyptic battle between good and evil that would soon usher in the end of the world and the reign of God.
Some of the scrolls are copies of the books of the Hebrew Bible (fragments of every book of the TANAK apart from Esther have been recovered). Some of the scrolls, such as the War Scroll, deal with the coming end of the world, and the battle between Good and Evil. The War Scroll employs familiar language of redemption from the books of the Prophets. Other texts are interpretations of the laws of the Torah, often ensuring strict adherence to God's law within the community.
Points of Interest
• The scrolls are identified by modern scholars according to which of the eleven caves in which they were found. The "War Scrolls" is actually a combination of several fragments: 1QM and 4Q491-496 indicates fragments from the first cave ("1Q"), fragment letter "M"; and from the fourth cave ("4Q"), fragments 491-496. More significant fragments have also been given names, such as the War Scroll (sometimes called the War Rule).
• The apocalyptic texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls often use names and terms found in the TANAK to refer to contemporary events: thus, in the War Scroll, the Roman Empire is referred to as the Kittim, a biblical term for Cyprus but applied cryptically to the Romans
Daniel 7, 11-12
On Daniel, see the reading guide to Week Four.
Reread these portions of the book of Daniel but, in this case, read them in light of first-century apocalyptic politics in the time of Jesus, as possible prophecies for the arrival--any minute!--of a messianic figure to free the Israelites.