1 Corinthians
This letter is the beginning of a series of troubled correspondence between Paul and a community he founded in Corinth (modern Greece). He had to return at least once to Corinth to settle internal disputes over the practical implications of the message of faith in Jesus Christ for living daily life.
Paul gives a greeting and thanksgiving, as normal. He then discusses the "divisions" that have come into the community at Corinth, which follow different versions of the message of Christ (from different apostles, including Paul). Some members of the community were (it seems) claiming a deeper understanding ("wisdom") of the gospel message. The "wise" or "strong" party believe that they already participate in their imminent salvation, and so can live apart from common morality: they know they are saved, and nothing in this corrupt world can harm them. The "weak" adhere more strongly to rigorous moral regulation, because they do not believe salvation has come yet and they want to be "ready" for it. Paul emphasizes the importance of moral restriction (the position of the "weak"), but also tries to moderate moral superiority (the position of the "strong"). He writes about sexual abstinence in somewhat ambiguous terms, praising virginity but not making it mandatory. He acknowledges that food sacrificed to idols is meaningless (since idols have no power), but insists that the damage done to fellowship and "weaker" Christians means people shouldn't be eating idol-meat. He describes his own apostolic leadership in terms of slavery to Christ. He gives instructions on proper behavior that both reinforce but also destabilize gender and class hierarchies, especially in the context of Christian worship. He discusses the various categories of "spiritual gifts," and delivers a famous speech in praise of love. He reiterates the message of salvation and resurrection he preached to them. He includes a call for donations to the community of faithful in Jerusalem, and promises a visit soon.
Points of interest
Paul's famous phrase "it is better to marry than burn" originally meant "to burn with passion"; later it was interpreted to mean "to burn in hell"
Meat for sale in public squares in ancient cities was almost always the byproduct of a temple sacrifice; by asking his followers to abstain from meat sacrificed to idols, Paul was basically asking them to give up meat
The "gifts of the spirit" (including speaking in tongues, glossolalia) seem to have been a common (although not universal) aspect of worship services in Pauline communities
Questions to consider
How do you interpret 1 Corinthians 7, Paul's chapter on sex? Is sexuality good, bad, or indifferent according to Paul? On what grounds?
How do you interpret Paul's discussion of himself as a "slave" in 1 Corinthians 9? How do claims of slavery support his authority? (Remember: when Paul was writing, slavery was still a commonplace social institution)
What's Paul's tone like in this letter (and the other letters)? Is he scary, comforting, parental, shrill, mystical? Do you find his tone persuasive? Do you think his readers did? (If so, why? What does it tell us about what they were looking for in a religious leader?)
Romans
Paul's letter to the Romans is the longest, most complex, and perhaps last of his authentic correspondence to survive. It is also, perhaps, the only letter he wrote to a community that he himself did not found. Paul was, apparently, planning to extend his mission to Spain (the end of the world, in antiquity) and was therefore planning on visiting the Roman community on his way: in some ways, this letter functions as a letter of introduction, so that the Romans would recognize his apostolic authority. Perhaps because the community did not know Paul firsthand, this letter lays out his beliefs about Christ and salvation in the most detailed, systematic terms (this is also one of the reasons scholars believe this may be a later from late in his life: his preaching has "gelled" into a more coherent form that in, say, 1 Thessalonians). In Romans we see many of the themes--Christ's divinity, human morality, the harm of the Jewish "Law" for gentile believers, spiritual descent from Abraham, gender roles--that are addressed in other letters. Christians today still consider this to be something of a theological "handbook" of foundational Christian beliefs.
The letter begins with the standard greeting and thanksgiving, as well as an introduction of his role as "apostle to the gentiles." This leads to a discussion of gentile separation from God and the need for God's salvation (including a vice-list, in Romans 1). God makes no distinction between Jews and gentiles, and therefore gentiles are in as much need (and have as much hope) of salvation as Israel does: all humans are under the cosmic power of sin. The example of Abraham, who was considered righteous "through faith" demonstrates that faith (or belief, or trust: the Greek word means all of these) is the only path to salvation, not adherence to ritual commandments (the law). The death and resurrection of Christ provide human beings with the gift (or grace) of redemption from the power of sin. Even though humanity will ultimately be freed from the power of sin through Christ's redemptive act of death and resurrection, Paul reminds the Romans that they must still live holy lives according to the spirit, and that their flesh is in a constant battle against their soul. Not all humans will be saved, and the covenants of Israel will be transferred to those who possess faith and true righteousness (although Paul does not discount the idea that Jews, too, may be saved): gentile believers are like a new branch grafted onto an old tree. Paul then commends the Romans to act with virtue, particularly with respect to their fellow believers, and also to obey the governing authorities of this world since they were instituted by God, also. The "strong" and "weak" believers should not judge each other, but treat each other with understanding and kindness. Paul reminds the Romans that, as soon as he has delivered the offerings of the Greek and Asian Christians to the Jerusalem community, he will be passing through Rome. He concludes the letter with a list of greetings to and from fellow apostles in the community at Rome.
Points of interest
The list of apostles at the end of Romans (Rom 16) includes many women, suggesting to scholars that women had access to positions of religious authority within the earliest Christian communities; some early modern readers of the New Testament found this idea so unappealing that they actually changed ("corrected") the name Junia (Rom 16:6), called "first of the apostles," into the (otherwise unknown) masculine name "Junias"
The concept of "original sin" (that all human beings are born with a genetic defect of sin inherited from Adam and Eve) derives in part from a particular (probably grammatically mistake) reading of Romans 5:12
For much of the modern period, the condemnations of Rom 1:26-27 have been used by some Christians to condemn homosexuality (other readings are often put forward, as well)
Questions to consider
How might a reader reconcile Romans 5 (that salvation depends "on faith") with Romans 12 (to keep bodies in this life as "a living sacrifice"): how are belief and action both part of Paul's preaching?
Is Romans 11 a condemnation of Jews and Judaism, or praise of Jews and Judaism? Read Rom 11:1-5 carefully: Is Paul Jewish?
How does Paul's message to "be subject to governing authorities" (Rom 13:1) square with his apocalyptic message? Is Romans very apocalyptic (i.e., does Paul talk much about the end of the world)?
Ephesians
Although attributed to the apostle Paul, most scholars believe it was written after Paul's death by one of his disciples or a member of a Pauline community. It represents a much more socially conservative gospel than is found in Paul's undisputed letters. Ephesus was a major city of Asia Minor (modern Turkey).
After the greeting a thanksgiving is given in the form of a blessing about the salvation of believers through Christ and the Holy Spirit. An additional thanksgiving for the unity and faithfulness of the Ephesians follows. Paul reiterates his own ministry as apostle to the gentiles, bringing the message of God to those who had never heard it. He describes the faithful as a body made up of diverse members (i.e., office-holders and lay persons). As members of this new body, the faithful have given up their old life (of moral and religious ignorance) and must now live as "children of light," following special moral codes. The household is transformed into a unified body of Christian morality (Paul addresses wives, husbands, children, parents, slaves, and slave-owners). Their faith is a struggle and belief their weapons and armor. A closing blessings of peace.
Points of interest
Paul writes "as a prisoner" (Eph 3:1); he was apparently put in jail several times during his ministry, presumably for disrupting the public peace
The emphasis on the community as a "body" has a long philosophical history before and after Paul: our modern concept of a "body politic" is related to it
Pseudonymity was common in the ancient world, and was not necessarily considered plagiarism or forgery if the author believed he was accurately representing the view of the ascribed author
Questions to consider
How would a reader of Paul's letters reconcile statements on absolute equality (such as Galatians 3:28) with the hierarchy of "members of one body" found in this letter (especially with respect to gender and class)?
How do the moral injunctions of this letter (particularly Ephesians 5) correlate with the vice lists of 1 Thessalonians or Galatians?
1 Timothy
Another pseudonymous letter of Paul, probably written one or two generations after Paul's death. Along with 2 Timothy and Titus (which structurally is very similar to 1 Timothy), this letter is one of the "pastoral epistles," so called because of its emphasis on pastoral and ecclesiastical structures and concerns.
The typical greeting and thanksgiving are interrupted by a warning against teachers of false worship ("myths and genealogies") and morally lax sinners. The thanksgiving is not, as typical of Paul, for the community he is addressing but rather for the mercy and patience of Jesus Christ. Immediately instructions are given for worship and leadership: modesty and decorum (particularly with respect to women) are emphasized. Official leadership roles and their qualifications are introduced: bishops ("overseers") and deacons ("servers") and, perhaps, deaconesses (or the wives of deacons). Priests (or "elders") are treated later. Those who preach against sex and marriage are condemned. Spiritual gifts and scriptural teaching are the proper teaching. Various groups within the community are addressed: elders (male and female) and widows. Wine is recommended for health reasons. Slaves must respect their masters. The evils of greed and dangers of wealth are highlighted: the rich should be generous and not greedy or snobbish. Timothy is warned against "knowledge falsely called."
Points of interest
"Knowledge falsely called" was used by a second-century Christian writer as a label for various heresies (deviant Christian groups), and is the origin of the scholarly label "Gnosticism" to describe certain groups of ancient Christians
"Widows" seem to have been an official category in this community, either as objects of charity or as ministers with specific duties: the author attempts to regulate this group in light of his views on family and marriage
The criteria for ministerial service (bishops, priests, deacons) are typically conservative views of "good husband, father, householder" in antiquity
Questions to consider
How do the moral restrictions of 1 Timothy compare with those of 1 Corinthians? Was a Christian in one community held to higher standards than a Christian of the other community?
How do the expectations about women and their roles compare between the undisputed Pauline letters you have read (especially 1 Corinthians and Galatians) and 1 Timothy?
How would you describe the author's attitudes towards wealth?
Acts of Paul and Thecla
The Acts of Paul (sometimes called Acts of Paul and Thecla or just Acts of Thecla) circulated from the second century onward and were very popular. Thecla was regarded as an apostolic saint (and still is in some branches of Christianity), and even after the Acts were excluded from "official" canons, it was still widely read and the cult of Thecla remained prominent throughout the Christian world.
Paul arrives in Iconium and is preaching to believers; Thecla, next-door to Paul's hosts, overhears him through a window and is entranced by his message of purity and virginity. She renounces her family and her fiancι, and when Paul is imprisoned for his disruption Thecla visits him in jail. Paul is whipped and thrown out of the city, and Thecla is condemned to death. God saves Thecla, and she finds Paul outside the city. They travel to Antioch, where a local official attempts to rape Thecla. She fights him off, and is once more condemned to death. She is housed by a female relative of the Emperor, who is swayed by Thecla's preaching. Thecla escapes death by beast in the arena twice. She baptizes herself in a pool of water in the arena. She is freed, and, dressed as a man, sets off to find Paul. She finds him, and secures from him a commission to preach Christ's gospel. She returns to Iconium and preaches. [In this version of the Acts of Thecla, she goes on to Seleucia, where she preaches and lives as a hermit in a cave; she eventually escapes the clutches of evildoers and is sealed up in her cave and proclaimed a martyr, i.e., a witness who has died for God. Many early versions of the Acts do not have this chapter set in Seleucia.]
Points of interest
Many of the characters that appear in the Acts of Paul and Thecla also appear in the Pastoral Letters; it has been suggested that the two circulated simultaneously as competing versions of the message of Paul
The shrines to Saint Thecla, in Seleucia (modern Silifke, Turkey), and in Egypt were among the most popular destinations for pilgrimage in antiquity
Questions to consider
How do messages about sexual abstinence (as preached by Paul in this story) and female liberation (as, perhaps, practiced by Thecla) go together?
Were you surprised by the anger of Thecla's mother and fiancι, who would rather see her die than follow Paul?
Were you surprised by the behavior of Paul, who twice abandons Thecla to be killed in the arena and refuses to baptize her? Is Paul heroic in this story?
1 John
Three letters survive that were subsequently attributed to the evangelist and disciple of Jesus, John. The language and imagery of the three letters is very similar to the Gospel of John, and they probably come from the same community. This first "letter" is really a sermon (there is no salutation or signature), a short speech or treatise on God, humanity, and the community of the faithful.
The author emphasizes the community bonds, God's generosity, and the need for atonement from sins. Sin is to be avoided, but can also be forgiven. Both the temptations of the world and those who deny that Christ is God's son (who are called antichrists, or Christ's opponents) must be avoided because the end of the world is coming soon. Freedom from sin manifests in actions, particularly maintaining the bonds of communal love and loyalty. Spirits (divine messages or gifts) must be scrutinized: some come from God, but others are merely of "the world." God's love is perfectly reflected in the love of the faithful for each other. The faithful must scrutinize each other for traces of minor and major (mortal, i.e., fatal) sin. Idol worship is condemned.
Points of interest
A conflation of John the author of Revelation and "John" the (supposed) evangelist and letter-writer has led to a conflation of symbols, images, and ideas; among many, the conflation of the "antichrists" (plural, human opponents of Christ) with the Devil and "deceiver of nations" as Antichrist (singular, human-divine false messiah)
"Light and darkness," which were common motifs of Jewish moral instruction, were prominent in early Christian writings that emphasize a stark choice between righteousness and wickedness
Questions to consider
Why does the author refer to his readers as "children" and "little children"?
This letter remains fairly popular due to the constant refrain that "God is love"; but what is the context and significance of this exhortation in 1 John?
1 Peter
The first of two letters attributed to the apostle Peter, probably dating from the end of the first century C.E.
The greeting comes from "Babylon" to the "exiles," and gives thanks to perseverance in Christ as a solace in suffering. The gospel is reiterated: how Christ's coming was foretold and now necessitates living a distinct, holy life of moral purity. The special sanctity of Christ's followers is emphasized, as slaves of Christ who follow his example of suffering. Marital patience should reflect biblical examples, and the ultimate patience of Christ. Good deeds should be done, even if they bring suffering; good is the reward of baptism. Morality must distinguish Christ's followers from the rest of the world; suffering will follow, made easier by communal love and the imminent end of the world. The suffering community should submit to the elders who have charge over them.
Points of interest
"Babylon" is almost certainly a code word for the city of Rome (see Revelation), drawing on the Babylonian Exile as a metaphor for Christian spiritual "exile"
Most New Testament literature was originally anonymous, and only subsequently attributed to various figures (Matthew, Mark, etc.); this is one of the few genuinely pseudonymous (i.e., deliberately written in someone else's name) writings of the New Testament (along with some letters of Paul)
Question to consider
There is constant reference to suffering: what are the justifications and rationales for the suffering of this community? How does it relate to their understanding of Christ?
What is the relation between being good and moral, and living in "the world"? What could Peter mean by "holy nation"?
Revelation
Revelation was probably written in the 80s or 90s. The author calls himself John, which was a very common name among ancient Jews (only later was he identified with the disciple and evangelist). The title literally means "unveiling" and is a Latin translation of the Greek term apocalypse. Both the genre of apocalypse and the world-view of apocalypticism had roots in pre-Christian Jewish attitudes towards the ruling powers.
Apocalypticism viewed the world as topsy-turvy, with the wicked ruling while the righteous suffered; it imagined a cosmic correction, perhaps in the form of an ultimate battle between good and evil, perhaps initiated by God or a divine agent of God (a messiah). Sometimes this ultimate conflict and restoration of the righteous would signal the end of the world as we know it, and the beginning of an entirely new mode of existence.
Apocalypse as a genre gives a literary representation of the topsy-turviness of the world and suggests how that imbalance of wickedness and righteousness will be corrected: either through a cataclysmic battle between good and evil, and the beginning of a new world order; or through an afterlife system of punishments and rewards (Heaven and Hell); or through a combination of the two. The author is usually a mystic or seer recounting prophetic visions that have been revealed to him by divine powers (Daniel is an example of apocalypse in the Hebrew Bible).
The Revelation of John was not the only Christian apocalypse that circulated in antiquity, but it is probably the oldest and it is the only one that was eventually accepted by all Christians as authoritative Scripture. Other apocalypses, such as the Apocalypse of Peter or the Apocalypse of Paul, focused more on afterlife rewards and punishments. The Revelation of John is squarely focused on the end of history, when the present flawed world order will be violently corrected.
Prologue (1.1-3)
Title and opening prayer, perhaps written by the author or added by later scribes
Letters to Seven Churches (1.4-3.22)
The first prophetic messages are in the form of letters to seven churches (all in Asia Minor; modern Turkey) that contain a combination of praises, warnings about corrupt prophets and false gospels, obscure references to the Hebrew Bible, and warnings about repentance, sin, and the Devil (Satan).
Worship in Heaven (4.1-5.14)
The seer is granted a vision of angels worshiping the throne of God, and the Lamb (Christ) taking hold of a scroll.
The Seven Seals and Seven Trumpets (6.1-11.19)
The Lamb opens the scroll which has seven seals, as the seer watches from the vantage of the heavenly worship court; at the opening of each seal, another catastrophe strikes the earth and brings it closer to the end of history. 144,000 (12x12x10x10: i.e., twelve tribes twelve times, ten times twice) children of Israel who have died for the Lamb are revealed in Heaven and "sealed" (i.e., claimed as God's property). Seven angels begin to blow their trumpets in order, bringing more catastrophe to the world below. Stars fall, fire rains from heaven, locusts, floods, disease destroy most of humanity. At the seventh trumpet, the heavenly court opens up.
The Defeat of Evil on Earth (12.1-18.24)
War in heaven erupts and is mirrored in omens and catastrophes on earth. A woman and child appear (good) and a dragon (evil); the dragon (evil, Satan, the Devil) is defeated by angelic warriors, but continues his rampage on earth. He summons two beasts from the ocean and the earth, whose worshipers are "sealed" (with the number 666). The Lamb and the 144,000 sealed witnesses appear in Zion, and three angels who condemn the worshipers of the beasts. Humanity is cut down like grapes to be pressed, and seven plagues are poured from seven bowls by seven angels and the world is destroyed (again). Evil appears as a whore named Babylon (representing Rome) riding a seven-headed beast (Rome was built on seven hills), who will be destroyed. The righteous sing in triumph over fallen Babylon, while the wicked mourn her fall.
The Defeat of All Evil (19.1-20.15)
Heaven rejoices and The Word of God rides forth and captures the two beasts and throws them in eternal fire. The dragon/devil/Satan is thrown in a pit for 1000 years, and Christ reigns on earth for 1000 years. The 144,000 are resurrected to reign with Christ (the first resurrection). After 1000 years Satan is released from the pit, battled and defeated and thrown in eternal fire with the two beasts. The rest of the dead are resurrected (the second resurrection) and judged, and the wicked also thrown in the eternal fire.
The New Heaven and Earth (21.1-22.7)
An entirely new creation emerges, and a new Jerusalem descends from heaven (the measurements of it are given in detail by an angel). Eternal worship of the Lamb and happiness are in the New Jerusalem.
Closing (22.8-21)
John is commanded to write down and circulate what he has seen. John (or the scribe) includes a curse on anyone who changes the text.
Points of interest
Almost every symbolic number, image, and phrase in Revelation has been interpreted by biblical studies scholars as relating to the first century C.E. Roman Empire: 666, for instance, may represent the name of the emperor Nero in Hebrew
"Babylon" was code for ancient Rome in the first century (compare with 1 Peter)
Revelation provides almost infinite sources of symbolic and prophetic contemplation: for more information, check out the infinite resources at the archived course page of Felix Just of Loyola Marymount
Questions to consider
Did you find Revelation difficult or easy to follow? Did the reading go quickly or slowly? Why do you think that is? (Just so you know: about half the readers say "difficult" and the other half say "easy")
Revelation is filled with dense symbolic imagery, some from the Hebrew Bible, some from other ancient sources, some which seems to be original to John (such as the beast with seven heads, or the whore of Babylon): do you think these symbols can (or should) be reinterpreted beyond their first-century context?
Did you find Revelation's prophecies specific and verifiable, or vague and difficult to confirm?